Transformational leadership coaching is the process of coaching players so that they then have the abilities and attributes to lead, enabling them to challenge, empower and inspire those around them (Bass & Riggio, 2006). The methods of transformational leadership have been studied within an organizational psychological setting since 1985 when Bass proposed new methods of leadership within industry. This was positively received in a period of wide criticism of organizational transactional leadership methods, which appeared more dictatorial and less intellectually stimulating for employees (Arthur et al., 2017). The first sports related research was conducted by Zacharatos et al. (2000) and over the last 20 years, the use of transformational leadership coaching has grown in many sports, as its effectiveness and long term benefits to participants is more clearly understood. This initial study focused on the ways in which transformational leadership from parents manifested itself in the behaviors, actions and cognitive functioning of their children. This in turn was shown to then be an influential factor, within the peer on peer sporting context, when children of parents who were transformational in natures where then transformational leaders on the filed or court of sporting competition. The study was conducted on 112 adolescents throughout 13 different sports teams, either single sex or mixed. The mean age of participant was 15.19 years. (Zacharatos et al., 2000) Various mediators have been the focus of research within this method of coaching to try and understand what makes it so effective. The mechanisms of intrinsic motivation, need satisfaction and empowerment are the most common mediators studied and situational moderators of experience in the sport, the teams’ performance and narcissism have also been a focus of research (Arthur et al., 2017).
The transformational leadership theory is based around the framework of the follower-centered approach. This approach focuses on the coach developing followers by use of inspirational and empowering behaviors with the objective that the coach develops the participants’ own capabilities to lead (Turnnidge et al., 2016). This is a development from the first steps that Bass and Riggio (2006) took in the development of transformational leadership from the transactional stage. Their theory was a person-centered approach, which focused on leaders developing positive working relationships with the participants that inspire, challenge and empower the follower.
Effective leadership behaviors of a transformational leadership coach
Transformational leadership coaching theory is constructed of the 4 ‘I’s of idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration (Turnnidge et al., 2016). The specific coach behaviors which are identified with each of the four aspects and that should be used within all aspects of their coaching are detailed below.
Idealized influence
Coaches should genuinely and authentically portray correct prosocial values which are clearly observed by their participants and all persons involved with the team. The coach’s behaviors will be copied by many so it is vital that they have a strong moral compass and act in a humble, focused and positive manner. Key examples are; simple tasks completed well, such as being organized and on time, engaged in the training, encouraging participants to work hard to earn reward, thus seeing improved performance. It is essential that the coach remains calm during competitive pressure situations, positively focusing on the performance of the team and individuals, not being tempted to be outspoken about others performances or poor officiation. If others are outspoken, politely addressing the need to remain calm for a positive environment and therefore reduced pressure, being maintained.
Coaches should also show vulnerability and humility, admitting to mistakes when they occur and to not pass blame to others. Idealized influence is based on an effective coach’s understanding of their coaching philosophy and who holds true to their values. Becker (2009) conducted a qualitative study involving 18 elite level athletes, 9 males and 9 females with an average age of 29. These athletes were asked to describe their experiences of coaching excellence, detailing elements of the coaches performance that made them so effective. Results from this study showed that some distinct characteristics used by transformational leaders were apparent in the perception of effectiveness and success of their favored coaches, these being their ability to developing personal professional relationships with the players and team; Creating an environment which is stimulating and positively focused, communicating clearly and ensuring that players were given the opportunity to take ownership of their development . Becker (2009) also discusses that during integration with players, other coaches and parents, coaches’ values should be clearly observed and the coach should not falter from them, displaying authentic and genuine passion and care for the players and team. When a coach is firm, but fair and consistent in their approach, then players feel secure, and when they know the expectations, they can confidently focus on their own development within the guidance of the coach (Becker, 2009). In true-to-life situations, coaches can display idealized influence by maintaining and discussing personal values. These can include but are not exclusive to good sportsmanship, integrity, humility, and honesty. These values must be modelled at all times during interactions with the players and the coach will address those that do not display similar characteristics in a calm and thought-provoking manner. The ability to remain human and show humility is vital as the players will respect and replicate the coaches behavior and the way in which it is performed.
Inspirational motivation
Inspirational motivation is developed when the coach shows confidence and belief in the performer, encouraging them to perform to the expected high standards (Fraser-Thomas & Côté, 2009). Avolio et al. (1991) research showed that the development of this inspirational leadership is derived from personally positive and motivational experiences of the coach, which they then develop into their own method of leadership and pass onto their players. Inspirational motivation is also achieved by creating a common goal or shared vision, which the players are inspired by and drive to achieve. Practical methods of improving the inspirational motivation of the teams are sharing a single vision as well as also offering genuine feedback to the players on how to improve their preference within consistent optimistic communication pathways (Turnnidge et al., 2016). Other practical methods which are shown to be effective are discussing goals and expectations, regularly expressing confidence in the athlete’s potential, promoting team cohesion and the need to work collaboratively together and providing clear rationales and explanations for training and performance goals.
Intellectual stimulation
Intellectual stimulation must be offered to the players for them to engage and think about their performance direction, choices and improvements. Players need to be positively challenged with scenarios which require them to think and develop solutions both collectively and as individuals. The effect of increased intellectual stimulation is greater autonomy from the players in overall performance, greater understanding of what they can do on the field of play under pressured conditions, and improved confidence in their own abilities without the need to look to coaches for answers. The sum result is an improvement not only in engagement in the training and in match setting, but also the wellbeing of the player (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003). Practice methods which ensure that players are intellectually stimulated are to include them in the decision-making processes, and to ask them to offer suggestions for the session content and how it should be coached. If coaches ask players to develop their own idea how certain situations of play can be overcome, coached and organized, this stimulates the players’ thinking and develops their understanding, and automatically draws them into the process by engaging them. By giving leadership roles to the players, this will also instill greater confidence in them if done on a regular basis. It will develop their ability to lead the team themselves and manage the field of play. If leadership roles and opportunities can be rotated through each of the team, then the coach will intellectually stimulate each player and develop a whole team of leaders, which is ultimately the foundation of the transformational leadership theory (Turnnidge et al., 2016).
Individualized consideration
Individualized consideration improves the enjoyment and commitment of the player to the team. They feel valued in their attendance at sessions and integral to the positive functioning of the team (Stuntz & Spearance, 2010). Within the study conducted by Stuntz and Spearance, (2010) 431 youth and collegiate athletes were assessed on the effect of coaches and peers cross domain knowledge, within sport and their home life and other interests, on a players improved enjoyment of the sport and commitment to the team. It was shown that those coaches and peers who went beyond knowing the player only on the pitch or court, were key to the increased enjoyment and commitment of the player. Effective coaches ensure that they have a strong interpersonal relationship with their players, which gives them a greater understanding of the players’ needs. This emotional and social intelligence enables them to effectively individualize their coaching behaviors to the different players on the team; this has several positive effects on player development of which improved confidence, collaboration and commitment are extremely beneficial to the teams overall progress (Erickson et al., 2011). In addition, effective coaches spend time getting to know more about each individual player. They know about their family situation, what they like to do outside of the sports program, and what other interests they have. This coaching behavior has been linked to higher levels of enjoyment and commitment from the players (Stuntz & Spearance, 2010). With a more thorough understanding of their players, coaches can adapt sessions to suit their players’ needs, which should depend on who they are working with and the extended knowledge they have about the player. They can also try and help players to achieve their aims outside of the sport program by setting goals and taking an interest in their progression in these areas (Turnnidge et al., 2016).Other practical measures coaches can take in order to improve the individualized consideration are to understand their players wants, needs, achievements and contributions in depth, therefore enabling them to display authentic empathy for the players feelings, needs and concerns.
An effective transformational leadership coach is one that facilitates the personal development of the athlete, improves performance and increases participation (Turnnidge & Côté, 2017). Transformational leadership is able to utilize either task-orientated and participant-orientated methods whereas other leadership theories are only able to follow one or other of these methods (Bass & Riggio, 2006). Research has also shown that transformational leadership methods are able to overcome the benefits of transactional leadership, and this improves the performance satisfaction of the participant or worker (Vecchio et al., 2008). If coaches are successful at using transformational leadership methods, they will be able to raise the participants’ levels of motivation in sharp contrast with the methods used within transactional leadership. Coaches are highly influential in the lives and development of athletes of all ages, with the power to influence both positively and negatively, which all depends on their approach to athlete development (Turnnidge et al., 2016).
One of the main tenets of transformational leadership coaching that allows it to be more successful, is its focus on the coach to develop and understand the participant, and create an effective relationship between the two (Côté & Gilbert, 2009). This relationship then leads to a level of trust between the coach and the performer with which the coach is able to the play a vital role in the growth of the participant.
Research shows that coaches who develop strong and effective relationships with their players or followers are more likely to achieve success than those that are less emotionally-intelligent and more dictatorial and, furthermore, that good relationships fostered through transformational leadership coaching can essentially lead to superior development and performance (Turnnidge et al., 2016).
Effects of Transformational Leadership on Athletes
Research consistently shows that the positive effects of transformational leadership coaching on performance enhance sports performance, increase the satisfaction of the performer and effectively increase the cohesion of the team. In a study conducted by Alverez et al. (2019), a multilevel SEM was used to assess the effect of transformational leadership coaching on 625 adolescent soccer players between the ages of 16-18, spanning across 50 different Spanish clubs. Their findings reinforced the common perception that transformational leadership coaching develops a positive outlook on task completion which improves sports performance, player satisfaction, team satisfaction, increased effort and player perceptions of increased effectiveness of the coach. .
Trust
By utilizing Transformational leadership coaching, the participants’ development of trust in the coach leads them to listen and react to what the coach has stated with a genuine interest and belief that it will enable them to improve their performance and the teams’ outcome (Turnnidge et al., 2016). Smith et al. (2017) conducted a qualitative analysis on 9 English professional county cricket players, in order to understand the factors that make transformational coaches and captains effective leaders. Their findings showed that high performance expectations combined with individual consideration for each player, were the key elements that inspired the players to progress. The individual consideration was stated to be the daily interactions that the coaches had with the players, that developed a trust and loyalty over time that inspired the players to train hard for the coaches and team, and improve their performance.
Pride
Participants also develop a sense of pride and attachment to the team when transformational leadership coaching methods are used, which increases the drive to improve their own performance for the better of the team (Wang et al., 2005[CK1] [CK2] [FR3] ). Chan and Mak (2014) conducted a 2-population study on the relationship between transformational leadership, pride in being the follower and commitment to the organization. The first population was 145 MBA executive students and the second, 210 serviced based employees. All answered the survey questionnaire which included an introductory section on transformational leadership, outlining the identified practices to be focused on. Further questions were answered on a 3-point scale using the Pride scale (Tyler & Blader, 2002) and the Organizational commitment assessment (Allen & Meyer, 1990). Significant results of transformational leadership leading to improved pride in being the follower and greater organizational commitment, were found from both sample population studies.
Empowerment
Empowerment and its relationship to transformational leadership coaching is one aspect which is discussed by many researchers. Understanding the finer definition of what ‘empowerment’ is and how it can make the participant think, feel, behave and therefore perform, are important in developing a method which is effective in positively empowering the follower (Barroso Castro et al., 2008). Tsevairidou et al., (2019) conducted a study on 247 sports employees, with the interest of determining the specific psychological effects of transformational leadership coaching on sports employee empowerment. The psychological empowerment instrument of Spriezer (1995) and the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) were used as tools to determine the level of empowerment the sports employees felt during their followership of their transformational leader. The results showed that employee self-determination and empowerment were significantly greater in leaders that focused on transformational leadership, specifically with attention being around the use of idealized influence to empower their followers. This empowerment for the athletes means that their goals are internalized and interpreted in a way that the follower feels they can make a positive contribution towards achieving them. Athletes have a sense of purpose in the forward movement of the organization and they feel confident in contributing towards this without restriction or fear of getting it wrong (Barroso Castro et al., 2008). This positive environment and feeling of being empowered leads to a more cohesive culture within the team. This results in further commitment and motivation from the participant as they see that they are accountable for their actions; these actions will have a positive or negative effect on the team’s performance overall.
Intrinsic motivation
The overall result of coaching in this way and empowering the individuals and team is the development of higher levels of intrinsic motivation and, from greater levels of intrinsic motivation, comes greater performance (Charbonneau et al., 2001) The control from the coach is not one of dictation but more of creating the environment in which the players are confident to make decisions, solve problems together without fear of failure or criticism (Turnnidge et al., 2016).
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